The Rationale and Intervention;

Debajit Bora

Ojapali, a semi dramatic performance genre of Assam, focusing on story telling and enactments of epic and myths, is a classic example of what in historical and contemporary times can be regarded as both a ‘popular’ as well as a ‘traditional’ culture. Keeping view of its popularity we want to locate our work in Darang and Mangaldoi district which comes under ‘Darangi culture’ known as the hub of ojapali. Studies of such forms range from intense romanticism, where all its popular characteristics are cited to exalt its powers to capture the identities of the local community to lamenting its decline and diminishing popularity.  There is an irreconcilable difference between the notions of a popular form, which survives on its own popularity and a history, which talks of its decline and confinement in terms of geographical and social, spread. More significant is as a popular form the performance itself narrates its own history, that also a critical one. The reason of its decline both in terms of its spread and its frequency is anomalous if we accept the notion of the ‘popular’ and try to attribute to changing times and socio-economic and political forces at play in modern and contemporary India. The nostalgia itself positions itself against its own present conditions and demands a historiographical review while keeping the performance in the foreground. The need is to look at the performance as a historical and ethnographic source telling the story of a community while at the same time tracing the history of the performance itself.

A form once dominant in the entire lower Assam has become increasingly confined to a few localities of Darang district. It has been cited in local , national and regional accounts as the ‘folk’ and the ‘local’ while also in touch with what was seen as the more ‘artistic’, semi classical or traditional forms.[1] The connection to Ankianat and the impact of Shankaradeva was as evident as the local comic elements. The form which through a story telling style also includes a more abstract form of dance and singing as enactment could absorb various elements where genre characteristics are varied and subjected to different interpretations. Hence in laying out the performance forms in Assam in various sources, just as Ankianat and Shankaradeva impact would be theexemplary  entry point, the mention or description of Ojapali would also feature. By its very inclusion as a more ‘local’ (read indigenous) category than what were seen as the more aesthetic forms its impact was mapped and hardly ignored.The question which emerges from the notion of forms is where do we locate its popularity and how do we read its accounts (ethnographic and historical) in both legitimate histories and official cultural policy documents as a form which includes within it a mapping of ‘high’  and ‘low’ culture.

The conflict between the notions of the popular in terms of the form with its historical marginalization is the entry point to theproblematization which I would like to unravel through documenting and analyzing the performance and its impact parallel to the history of the genre. I will be arguing that this will allow a new way of constructing historiographical intervention to the simplistic way these forms have been studied or relegated to ‘categories’ in post independent Indian writings.

One of the reasons of the historical popularity of the form has been cited because of its close relationship to the aesthetics of Ankianat and the reformation it underwent under the impact of Shankaradeva. It is not clear whether the impact was direct or the new religious spiritualism encouraged emulation. The dance and the singing became more codified and intricate during this form. These are the aspects, ironically, which really has allowed ojapali to be cited as one of the forms which can be seen as representing the Assamese culture. There is an underlying critique here that the actual form and its popular elements however aesthetically reformulated, doesn’t necessarily mean it should be the form to represent the region or a national form which is nurtured in its region.

The problem becomes more complex when we realize that while the aesthetic characteristics attributed to the Ojapali dates to its dialogue with the ankianat, the peak of its popularitycan be located in alternate time, practice and aesthetics.

 The real popularity and its widespread practice was a pre-Shankaradeva phenomenon as cited by most local accounts and histories of the form and cultural practices of Assam[1].  After the end of agricultural season people used to organize ‘Manasha puja’ for the welfare of their region and prevent death from snake bites. Generally it was organized in public places. People of the society without any class caste difference unite in the public ground to take blessings of goddess Manasha. Like a number of peasant rituals again it is not a popular form, which emerged from the peasants or the agricultural community, but encouraged and shaped by its official patron the Darangi kings.[2] Its real popularity lies in its organic connection and syncretism of the Manasapuja which is celebrated at the end of the agricultural season. The festival with the performance of the Manasa story is played in episodes through 11-15 days. The text is like the practice in eastern India derived from the Dharmapuran, with the selection of the performance scenarios made by SukabiNarayana  deva, under the patronage of Koach king Dharmanaryana. The popularity of the form amongst peasant communities is also what makes the depiction of the Manasa story its strongest popular text and enactment. Through the perspective of Paul Connerton we can say that ojapali became a social memory among the Darangi people[3].

Local historical accounts like that of Nabin Chandra Sharmah in one of his book on the history of Darang has cited that during the reign ofDharmanarayana the Darang desh became integrated with Koach state[4]. Thus interpreted would imply that demographically this would be its largest spread covering the landscape of today’s Sonitpurdistrict  toKoach Bihar in West Bengal. Historically this was seen as the 

peak of the forms popularity. The Manasa story enactment however cannot and makes no pretense of any aesthetic beautification. The ‘grotesque’ aesthetics of the central figure of Manasa tells us about the most popular text of the oja palli and one of the reasons why it could never be either within the traditional and classical category to be eulogized as the Assamese or post independent Indian culture. Its aesthetic doesn’t allow it to become directly the example of the aesthetic identity politics. In that sense its popularity is because of this very non aesthetic categories. Yet it does not sustain its genre through its own circulation or without royal or other patronage. Mere depiction of its Manasa enactments and its participative large audiences cannot give us more than an ethnographic account and a simple historical story which can only chronologically lead to the impact and intervention of the Shankaradeva and the neo-Vaishnavite movement.

Neo-vaishnavic ojapali has generally been associated with upper Assam. Shankaradeva initiated a new type of Ojapali called Sattriya or Ramayani ojapali. Bhrigu Mohan Goswami in his book “ A study on the ojapali art form” says: “ Daitarithakur a well known biographer of Assam in 17^th century A.D. writes in his guru carita that Shankardeva preached his new doctrine with the help of the ojapali art form.[1] The katha guru carita inform us that illiterate persons like Laxmanoja could get by heart the entire Assamese version of the Dasama( Book X of the Sanskrit Bhagawta-purana) and the EkadashaSkandha ( book XI of bhagawata-purana) and they were recognized as oja.”. This history of upper Assam and its adaptation of Ojapalli is a sharp contrast to what is seen as its ‘popular’ character. The Ahom kings of upper Assam in their long consolidated rule of 600 years see ojapali, not as an ‘entertainment’ medium but a ‘religious performance’ in temple. In that sense the other genre of ojapali not only reflects power structures of kingship and religious institutions, but because of its non popular intent is adaptable to aesthetic politics which is then cited as the identity of the Asamese people and their culture.

Through the evolution of the ojapali my intent is to see how performance forms (the ojapali being the extensive case study) can be not only seen as a historical archive of its culture and identity of its participants, but its history itself combined with its own historical self reflexivity becomes a critical historiographical study.

The format of storytelling, supposedly from the epics and the Puranas, through improvised songs, dialogues and performative interludes itself weaves in the notion of enacting one’s identity with the notion of narrating and commenting on the enactment itself. The term ‘oja’ means the leader of the troupe and ‘pali’ is his assistant. Generally a group of five and six people performs ojapali in public places,namghor (Assamese prayer halls) and Maroi puja (Manasapuja)ground. Dr. Nabin Chandra Sharmah has describedthe performance thus:

“The dialogues and conversation of Ojapali neitherwritten nor prepared before the performance, created instantly, keeping view the class of audience, environment and then dramatized it during their performance by oja and pali. Audience can get the sense of Epic and Purana subject mattermatter through satire and humor. Contemporary issues, events and problems are addressed through performance. Generally Bhaira or the Dainapali( pali stands to the right hand side of Oja) put more humor element to it.”

One of the major significant aspects of ojapali is its versatility and interactivity and operates at two levels. The enactment sections are self absorbed and even abstract while the story telling techniques distances itself from the performance and even takes on its place with the audience.The intent is to use the epic stories to address social, economic and political issues.  The story telling is directly addressed to the audience, adding to the inclusive and shifting space. Here Michael Wilson’s notions of story telling is a key idea and refers to the story teller as an insider-outsider who mediates a historical review of the performance itself, before its history can even be written. Bringing in a methodological perspective from theatre and performance studies around story telling strategies will allow me to ground the performance practice at multiple levels of its performance.

 Through the complex performance happening at every level the form can be read as identity performance of the community it represents as well as its history. At the other level my intent is to trace the history of the performance itself and hence see it as a second level of history or a historiographical method.

 I am reading this space as performing the present along with a past and choreographing its own history.

The idea of ojapali being a popular form rooted in its community is in contrast to its increasing marginalization and geographical confinement. I read this as a problem in terms of reading so called popular forms and its struggle for survival. If it is indeed a popular form the increasing marginalization is a far more complex idea rather than the usual arguments of a direct proportional decline measured against the growth of the electronic media, the mobile theatre of Assam or even the cinema. The problems of trying to pursue an alternate trajectory to the growing commercialization of leisure activities has an adverse impact on what we always saw as ‘popular’ forms making simplified assumptions and conclusions difficult to make. Similarly just to see it as a reflection of the shrinking of agrarian activities of the community does not answer the question but actually makes it more complex. The ojapali performers as a community are joining the industrial labour force and today represent the working class rather than the agrarian community by there sheer presence in industrial labour. Moreover the growing difficulties are making it impossible even within the seasonal performance cycle for the performers to sustain their economic needs and hence there is a growing need to perform the ojapali as a part time activity. These are more complex ways to interpret social changes and its implications for forms like Ojapali.  I am trying to foreground the recent performances and read through the performative texts and changes to understand the complex changing scenario of India. Whether the performance can even be read in this way is what I would like to explore.

Ultimately there is a need to map the ojapali against other forms which have come under the radar of national and regional cultural attention. It would be interesting to see the debates around Sattriya receiving the legitimate sanction as the eighth classical form of India. Sattriya, which adopts aspects of ojapali in its own cultural expression is now a coded form which in the process of classicization inflicted violence on the so called popular form of ojapali. The official cultural policy and regional politics around performance genres is important in this work to understand the problem .

  

Rational and intervention:

 Debajit Bora

According to Dr. Nabin Chandra Sharmah oja pali is a ‘way of social expression’. on the other hand Dr. Maheshwar Neog define oja pali as ‘a classical performing form of Assam.’ oja pali has a long history of its own in Assam. Since a very long period of time oja pali has been serving as a media among the Assamese community. The performance of oja pali is narration of epic and purana stories through songs, dialogues and performance. The term ‘oja’ means the leader of the troupe and ‘pali’ is his assistant. Generally a group of five and six people performs oja pali in public places,namghor (Assamese prayer halls) and Maroi puja (Manasa puja)ground. Regarding oja it is said:

“Mukhe gita ,hate mudra,

pawe dhore tal.

Garunda sadrsa bhrame,

sehi oja bhal… 1

 It means an oja has to be expert in singing; dancing and acting. The performance progresses within the conversation of oja and pali. Generally Oja begins the narration and pali creates an conversation on the spot. Through the narration of epic stories they also address social issues and problems. Dr. Nabin Chandra sharmah has described it thus:

“The dialogues and conversation of oja pali nor written neither prepared before the performance. It create instantly, keeping view the class of audience, environment and then dramatized it during their performance by oja and pali. Audience can get the sense of epical subject matter through satire and humor. Contemporary issues, events and problems are being address through performance. Generally Bhaira or the Dainapali( pali stands to the right hand side of Oja) put more humor element to it. The motive behind the humor is the social expression. Hence it is said:

Oja pun PaliHala /

Tar maje Rasar Nijara//

 That means oja describes the story strait forward but pali make it indirect by putting humor element into it. Within the conversation the lyrical quality of dialogues evolves.”

 Looking at its kinds oja pali has differentiate into three forms- 1. Biyagowa oja pali 2. Sukanani oja pali 3. Ramayani oja pali. Biyagowa oja pali is very ancient form, the term Biyagowa comes from Vyas deva. This subject matter of this oja pali deals with Vyas deva creations. Sukanani oja pali has got its name from Sukabi Narayana deva. Generally sukanani oja pali deals with the Manasha story of Padma Purana, which is written by Sukabi Narayan Deva. The last one Ramayani came into the scene much later. As suggested in the name, Ramayani oja pali deals more with the Ramayana stories. This oja pali was initiated by Shankardeva in the upper Assam by taking suknani and Biyagowa’s model.

Compared from side of popularity suknani oja pali definitely comes to the front than the other forms. The Darang and Mangaldoi district of Assam is known as the hub of Sukanani oja pali. Because Manasha puja is very often organizes in this place and traditionally oja pali is uses in Manasha puja to describe Manasha myths and stories. On the other hand Ramayani oja pali was popularized by Shankardeva. He uses oja pali to sent his vaishnavic elements to the common uneducated people. As Shankardeva was against the idol worshippers therefore he prepared oja pali in a newer way by putting vaishnavic element into it. Basically it is practiced in Sattras of Assam. Biyagowa oja pali which was once very popular in southern part of Pragjyotishpur ( souther part of Guwahati) later spread all over lower Assam.

As we have already discussed that Darang and Mangaldoi district which comes under ‘Darangi culture’ known as the hub of oja pali. The identity of the Darangi people reflects through this popular form. Unique interactivity, simplicity and satire are the basic elements which attract people towards it. More over within the performance audience sometimes becomes a performer. Thus it breaks the ‘fourth wall’ concept of performance. The traditional learning process and practice oja pali traditionally also create an identity for the community. All people without class, caste and community able to participate in it and hence it has got a popular platform. Our study of oja pali also deals with the identity of Darangi community and hence we will look at more on Suknani oja pali of Darangi culture.

Over the period of time, changing scenario of traditional societies and increasing media culture and other popular forms has brought challenges to traditional values of our society. In Assam Mushrooming of corporate media houses and modern popular forms like mobile theatre is threatening   against traditional forms like Oja pali. Higher exposure of non Assamese culture by these popular forms has decreasing interest towards Oja pali and other forms. On the other hand state patronizing of other traditional forms for owns political interest carries away practitioner’s attention from it. This is particularly in contrast to the State and regional level politics, for example the efforts to preserve and provide a classical status to the Sattriya. Significantly seminar papers going back to the 1956 Drama seminar and the 1958[1], Dance seminar organized under the aegis of the SangeetNatakAkademi often gave similar weight age to Sattriya and oja pali while Ankia nat was the form eulogized and upheld as Assamese culture. After recognition of sattriya as 8^th classical dance of the country the first spark of marginalization came into the scene. Our study of oja pali also look at politics of it.

Along with the traditional values, globalization and corporatization is affecting agriculture a lot. When we see the oja pali performers of darangi community, agriculture is the only means of earning. They uses to perform oja pali after completing their farming. Moreover various gestures, body languages were also related to nature. But with the changing period of time whole interest is under threaten. Traditional way of learning oja pali is now very rare. Hence state’s patronizing f these forms becomes very important one.

Above all other issues the genre has hardly been of any interest in terms of academic research, with the exception of one research from Gauhati University and almost marks a parallel path of marginalization to the genre itself. On other hand only few writers in the past like Dr. Maheshwar Neog, Dr. Nabin Chandra Sharmah, Dr. Birendra Nath Dutta has written about it. Even after having long cultural history of oja pali. The form yet has been under realized in Academic spaces. Different writers represents different kind of history of oja pali. Likewise it is not yet been look at the storytelling aspects of oja pali, which is the most significant one. Till date no other attempt made to look at the issue of darangi identity through oja pali. Writer Nabin Chandra sharmah who has written broadly about this art form in his book ‘Paribeshya kola : Oja pali’ just discussed about its songs and other folkloric aspect of it. Similarly Dr. Maheshwar neog and Birendranath Dutta also talks about oja pali’s origin and classical elements in relation to study Indian dance tradition. Here we feel an attempt to look oja pali from performance aspect.

Often many questions arises on the nature of oja pali, what is it actually? Storytelling, acting, music and dance?  We cannot deny this debate in a research work on this performing art. According to Michael Wilson: “Storyteller always presents himself or herself and the story. The storyteller, it is claimed, never hides behind the character, but always remains visible to the audience.”. But what happened when oja performs for ex, character of Rama while performing Ramayani oja pali. Is it acting or storytelling? On the other hand keeping view to its power of songs and lyrics Nabin chandra Sharma categories it as music. But how can one deny its performers bodily performance?  For maximum people of Assam oja pali is still a just old dance. Although it is performing well towards society but nobody cares to keeping eye on its strategy of storytelling, communication, gestures and acting. Our work will be analyzing all these aspects.

Dr. Maheshwar Neog and Sunil Kothari in their writings on Sattriya have stated that sattriya has almost 500 years of history. Keeping this fact in mind we can say that then oja pali has more than long history than sattriya. Because Shankardeva has created sattriya dance and ankiya Bhaona taking elements from oja pali. Our study on oja pali has proved that whenever writers uses to say about oja pali various mythological stories centered around it. Dr. Bhrigu Mohan Goswami says in his book , what he finds the history of oja pali in ancient literature:

‘The oja pali art form at the time of Shankardeva (1449-1568) can be justified by the guru carita of Rama Carana Thakuria. He relates that Shankaradeva brought choto balorama, a dainapali (chief of the assistants of oja pali troupe) thorugh Narayana thakura ata:

Anilanta narayane bhakta anupama/

Biyasar pali tente chato baloram//

The bhakata per excellence Narayana brought,

The young baloram, he was a pali of biyahar oja pali.

Daitari thakur a well known biographer of Assam in 17^th century A.D. writes in his guru carita that Shankardeva preached his new doctrine with the help of the oja pali art form. The katha guru carita inform us that illiterate persons like Laxman oja could get by heart the entire Assamese version of the Dasama ( Book X of the Sanskrit Bhagawta-purana) and the Ekadasha Skandha ( book XI of bhagawata-purana) and they were recognized as oja. 

It is found in the cooper plate of 1738 A.D. entrusting different duties of Dharesvara Siva temple to different to different functionaries. Here we find the reference of the oja pali. The plate assigned one oja and six palis to perform their daily duties in the temple. During Ahom kingdom in Assam, king like Siva Simha patronized Oja pali. In the year 1739 A.D. he issued a cooper inscription in connection with well management of the Pingalesvara Siva temple. In this plate the king refers to oja pali.Laxmi simha ganted a cooper plate in 1774 A.D. In this he mentions one Sagara Biyah oja of kamrup.  In the same way Laxmi Simha, another Ahom king issued another copper inscription in the year 1775 A.D. and refers to one Chantai das , Biyahar Oja of Madhava temple Hazo.’

Other writers  Maheshwar neog and nabin Chandra sharmah also writes history of oja pali from different time period. But which are incomplete or less analysed yet. One of our attempt would be look at the history of oja pali and arrange it according to the time period by keeping analytical view on it.

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What is Progressive Literature? Why?

   Translator’s Note

K. Damodaran was part of the Jeeval Sahitya Prastanam (life oriented literature movement) was the Kerala regional branch of the All India Progressive Writers Association. As part of my second translation exercise, I have translated certain excerpts from K. Damodaran’s essay, ‘What is Progressive Literature? Why?, which was presented for discussion at the Malabar Progressive Writers’ Conference  which took place in Nellayi from 6-8^th May [year 1937]]

                           

                                        What is Progressive Literature? Why?

After the world economic crisis from 1929-33, to explain more clearly, after the onslaught of the army of fascist dictatorship against all cultural values, a new movement arose in word literature called progressive literature. The writers’ conference held in Paris in 1934[1][sic] under the presence of world literary figures like Henri Barbusse, Louis Aragon and Romilot [Romain Rolland?] laid the foundation for this new literary movement. As a result of the efforts of Sajjad Zaheer and other anti-imperialist Indian writers who attended the Paris Conference, an all India Progressive Writers’ meeting was conducted in Lucknow in 1935 which was chaired [and addressed] by the emperor of Hindi Literature, Shri Premchand. The All India Progressive Writer’s Association took form after that meeting and its Kerala division was born under the name of Jeeval Sahitya Prastanam [Life oriental Literaature Writers ‘Association] in 1937. It is known as the Progressive Writers’ Association since 1942.

New Literary Movement in the Modern Period

The progressive literature movement emerged in order to accomplish certain obvious social requirements. It is the movement of those who consciously create literature for the progress of society.

The economic crisis of 1929-33 and the developments in the changing socio-economic-political context following that not only affected the material living conditions of man but also brought about enormous transformations in the emotional and mental realms. The conflicts within social life reflected in the mental sphere. On the one side, endless literary cultural activities were taking place to justify and uphold [maintain] the exploitation and attempts of war by the time extinguished forces of imperialism; and on the other, new literary cultural activities that stand firm and rooted with the people arose to oppose attacks on cultural values and support the growth of forces of freedom and peace; writers of progressive literature sprang forth as representatives of the second one.

In that period when British imperialism continued to keep India under the fetters of slavery, the chains of imperialism stood as a hindrance in various ways to the growth and development of Indian society. In order to produce literary works that would inspire [stimulate] common people to tear down these binding shackles, the institution of progressive literature was invoked. The first progressive writers’ meeting accepted a small announcement in lieu of the goals of the body of progressive literature. It was declared that progressive writers should create literature that will assist the struggles against British imperialism. The Jeeval Sahitya Prastanam in Kerala also acknowledged this declaration.

In brief, the association of progressive writers was conceived to carry out certain historical social necessities and to accomplish renewed responsibilities of changing cultural aspects.

The Role of Movements in World Literature

Some argue that perfect [ideal] literary works are not produced as a result of movements, hence such movements and institutions are not necessary and instead they only lead to further confusion and disarray. What such people do is close their eyes towards history. It is so because during various epochs in history, many movements arose in literature in response to changing conditions of social life. Literature, similar to social living, progressed through organisation. Whenever any new movement that fuelled and inspired new social forces emerged, the [stubborn] defenders of antiquity [old traditions] have displayed frenzied resistance against it. For example, during the period of 14-16^th century, when factories, industries and capitalist social relations emerged, a new benevolent and humanitarian literary movement called the humanist literature came up to resist and oppose existing scholastic literature. Literary figures like Petrarch and Boccaccio were the leading proponents of this movement. Classical literature which was of significance in 17^th century and Romantic Literature which came up in the 18^th century were all new literary movements in their own periods.

In 18^th century France, new literary movements sprang forth against the dominance of the church and aristocracy, in association with revolutionary socio-political movements of that period. Challenging existing spiritual and philosophical thoughts, literary leaders like Voltaire and Diderot started portraying the progress of people in literary-cultural platforms. Romantic literature, which emerged with the efforts of exemplary literary figures like Victor Hugo, Shelley, Hayne et cetera fought for the freedom of forms from the rigid postulates [canon] of classicism and to include and portray the progress and lives of people against the dominance of aristocracy.

Realism as a movement in literature came up in 19^th century with the demand to sincerely and veraciously portray the unpleasant and dreadful aspects of life along with its wonderful aspects. It later developed into naturalism. Naturalism is the depiction of everything that is visible in the surrounding with photographic precision [verisimilitude]. Critical Realism emerged in response to this with the insistence that the realities of life should be observed and reflected upon critically. It is a literary movement that aimed to expose the evils of existing capitalist order with veracity by studying and observing the realities of life in detail. Stendhal, Balzac, Dickens, Thackeray and similar other literary figures were the proponents of critical realism.

Critical realist writers were able to genuinely portray the perversions and ugliness of existing social life. But, they could not realise and identify the crucial forces that were pushing this social order into its inevitable downfall. It was a period when the working class was not yet fully conscious of its own strength.

In order to resolve this lack, in the beginning of 20^th century, that is, when capitalist regime was overthrown and the age of workers’ revolution began; a new literary movement called Socialist Realism began under the guidance of Maxim Gorky. It is a movement that not only honestly depicts social life, but also reflects where it is headed along with examining how [social realities] change as a result of people’s struggles.

It can be noticed that Malayalam literature was also hit by the waves of these specific movements which occurred in world literature. Malayalam literature came into being as part of a movement to release itself from the hold of Sanskrit and Tamil and to earn the right to produce literature in its own language. There were Romantic and Realist movements in Malayalam literature as well. Similar to the movement for replacing Sanskrit terms and concepts with folk terms and concepts, there have been strikes [movements] to include socially relevant aspects instead of mere descriptions of gods and goddesses and nature in Malayalam literature. As workers and peasants movements strengthened, there have been movements in Malayalam [literature] to portray ordinary workers, farmers, harijans (Dalits) and manual scavengers as protagonists and existing oppressing classes as degenerate classes.

To summarise, it is through the conflict between old and new and movements resonating social growth in various epochs of time that literature has grown [in time].  Ideal literature has never been impartial; it has always stood by novelty and innovation in the face of conflict between old and new and abating social forces and strengthening social forces. It is precisely because of this that it is considered ideal literature.

Who [all] are Progressive Writers?

Progressive literature emerged after wrestling with regressive literature that represents imperialist forces. The foundational principle of such regressive literature is subjective [and individual] spiritualism. In opposition to truth, realism and critical realism, regressive literature in the grab of various terms such as futurism, surrealism, existentialism, cosmopolitanism[sic] and so on try to confuse the people and impede their progress. Despair, mysticism, the thought that man is helpless and incapable of building one’s own future complete degradation, sexual vagaries,  respect for war and massacres, condescension to cultural values, faith in the evil of man and the disbelief in the generosity of mankind, hatred towards ideals, all of these are the main trends of regressive literature.

Such regressive trends are advertised behind a veil of arguments which state that art does not have any other responsibility beyond that of being art in itself. Their intention is to protect the existent established [dominant] order by drowning majority of people into the depths of ignorance, superstition, uncertainty and inaction. In opposition to such regressive trends and other positions which expound art for arts’ sake, the Jeeval Sahitya movement came up and grew by arguing that the production of literature should have a thoughtful and conscious aim.

Along with the growth of workers’ movements and peasants’ movements in Kerala, the influence of socialism began to spread gradually around the country. It was in that period that some anti-imperialist youth writers who were also leaders of the rising bahujan[2] movements came forward with poems, stories and plays which attempted to inspire and motivate the demonstrations and strikes of workers and peasants by placing the goal of socialism ahead of them. Many among them were not even skilled with artistic expertise and maturity. Even then, their works contained aspects of socialist realism. It was under their leadership and guidance that jeeval sahitya movement began in 1937.

Around the same time, the number of writers who attempted to reveal the malice and ugliness of existing social order through their writings were increasing though they did not overtly propound socialism and Marxism. There were also many other writers who envisioned social equality and took the pen to write against untouchability, caste hierarchy and so on. Most of their works imbibed critical realism. All of them combined to form the progressive literature movement.

Progressive Literature is, hence, much more vast and extensive than socialist realist literature. It encompasses not only socialist realism, but also critical realism.

To state differently, not only those writers are progressive writers who believe in Marxism and work towards building socialism and overhauling the existing social order by organising workers and peasants struggle and consolidating all the oppressed classes under the leadership of the workers struggle. Marxism is a science that explains the functioning of social forces lucidly and logically [with reason] by describing the tenets of social progress. It is true that those who study Marxism not only understand the [constitution of] society, but can also expedite the process of social transformation by foreseeing how and where society is progressing. But it is incorrect to state that only one who believes in Marxism can be a progressive writer. All those writers who expose the perversions of existing social order which has already reached its timely culmination and stand with the people for social growth in whichever way possible, even if they do not believe in Marxism or illustrate the means for social transformation, are progressive writers.

A progressive writer is both a literary figure and a firm proponent of progressive thoughts. But who is a writer, what is literature, what is the definition of progressive and what is social progress? It is important to have a clear understanding about all of this.

Is Everything That Is Written Literature?

Literature, by its larger definition, encompasses the works of all kinds of writers. It could be differentiated into artistic, political, scientific and technical, based on the nature of its contents. In its general meaning, literature includes everything that has been written. All writers are literary figures. Like those who write prose and poetry, the ones who write scientific books and political books are also considered to be literary figures.

Usually, the term literature is not used in its general sense. Mostly creative and artistic works, for instance, poetry, stories, novels and plays [drama] are understood as works of literature. Works which elucidate political matters could be termed political literature and those related to science can be called scientific literature. But those who write such works are not usually recognised as literary figures, according to the general understanding and definition of the term.

The boundary lines between various kinds of literature are very narrow. At times, it is difficult to differentiate one form from the other. There are numerous leaflets and books which appeal to maintain or transform the practises of existing ruling order. All of them could be seen as literature according to its larger definition.  But, the poems of Mayakovsky and Futchiks’ notes from the gallows come under literature in hand with artistic innovation.

Some political and scientific works or certain excerpts of these works could be described as artistic or creative. In spite of that, they are political or scientific works; they are not art oriented literature in the usual sense.

What is Literature?

A literary figure is also a social being like everyone else. He [sic] writes literature in compliance with the functioning of social forces. He represents the social consciousness that comes as part of social growth.  Literature is a form of social consciousness.

But, a literary intellectual who represents social life is a vital human being, not a lifeless machine. Hence, he depicts the course of his own viewpoints through literature. It is possible to gauge whether he is a regressive or progressive writer only after identifying whether his viewpoints are regressive or progressive.

Literary exponents are not a separate race [group] or a separate section. They come up from various communities, races and sections of people. Therefore, there will be literary figures that represent different communities and races and different established interests. There will be [literary] writers who are workers, there will be [literary] writers who are owners and there will be [literary] writers who are landlords. Their views on social life might not be identical. It is not easy to hold a position that is bereft off the differences in social life or community or racial differences. The surroundings in which a literary writer grew up and his social relations, the books he read, the experiences he has confronted in life are all crucial in shaping his opinions. Hence, the standpoint of a [literary] writer can either regressive or progressive. Literature that is created and produced with a progressive perspective is progressive literature.

Progressive stands for [...]

But, what does the term progressive imply;

The personal choices and experiments with beliefs of every individual need not necessarily be progressive, that is, the definition of the term progressive is not subjective. This is because social realities, conflicts in social life and struggles that are reflected in literature are independent of the personal wishes and desires of the writer. A literary writer alone is not the decisive figure in envisioning the direction of progress of society. Social growth is commanded by certain special imperatives which are free from the impressions and understandings of a literary writer. It is only in accordance with these imperatives that society can progress.

Consider for example that a [literary] writer believes that it is progressive to restore untouchability, caste hierarchies and the old varna-dharma[3] system. But such thoughts are not compatible and in resonance with social realities. Untouchability and caste hierarchies are not progressive but degenerate institutions.

Or else, assume that someone believes that a society based on cottage industries instead of mechanised industries is progressive. Such a belief is incongruous with social realities. This is because the growth of industries has become indispensible according to certain economic policies which function outside the parameters of the [literary] writers’ belief system.

 If not, consider that a person decides that aristocratic rule is progressive. But, this decision is not harmonious with social realities. Presently despite the strength of the ruling forces of aristocracy, it is a deteriorating institution.

No matter what the plans and desires of a [literary] writer are, they should comply with objective [social] realities. That is, a literary writer should be able to portray [depict] growing and deteriorating forces in society as they are.  Such a figure is a progressive writer because he reflects social progress in his works. He is one who creates literature that inspires the development of society.

A [Literary] Writer’s Freedom

There are many who argue that a [literary] writer should remain just a writer, or that the free expressions of those writers who believe in creating literature from a progressive perspective have surpassed unnecessary and dangerous thresholds.  Some even argue that a writer is free from time enduring socio-political problems and the limits of territorial and spatial boundaries. Is this correct?

No, it is not. Similar to those engaged in various occupations, a [literary] writer is also bound to work within the parameters of prevailing social relations.  A writer, even with the most idiosyncratic personality, is a social being. He will be able to enjoy his freedom only in association with other individuals of the society...

To summarise, it is the social conditions and scenario which shape the thoughts and consciousness of a [literary] writer. He cannot become a writer by standing outside the realm of social relation. Neither can he become a conscious individual.

So, a [literary’ writer becomes free when he associates himself with social conditions and remain committed to the progress of society.

In a society, that is rampant with social oppression and exploitation, a [literary] writer remains muddled in the tangle of various demands and obligations that trample his personal freedom. It is only through conscious efforts for social progress that he can break away from them.

                                                                                          ....

Form and Content

There is a belief that any literature could become progressive if the form and craftsmanship is exquisite. A progressive writer will not conform to that viewpoint. If artistic and formal flawlessness are used to promote degenerate and regressive thoughts, then they cease to be progressive literature. Along with form, its content should also be beautiful. Only then will it be progressive literature.

A progressive writer does not blindly dismiss all art forms that have developed during various periods in the cultural history of Kerala. A progressive writer can use any of these art forms with or without changes. Be it Ottamthulal, Kathakali, Chakyarkootu and Teyyam or novels, short stories and shadow plays; a progressive writer can use any of these art forms with or without modifications. If not any of this, it could also be the most contemporary art form. It is only necessary to fulfil what is required from the form of art. As far as a progressive write is concerned, the purpose of form is to express the intentions of the content. If a particular form can evoke and express the motives tastefully and effortlessly, then it has succeeded. If the intent of any artwork with a progressive outlook can touch the depths of a common viewers mind, then it has as much beauty and tenderness.  Since people constitute the forces that push forth social transformation, a literary or art work that has inspired people has also contributed to the process of social transformation.       

                                                                                         ...............                                                                                                                                      

Current Viewpoints

When we accept the popular principle [norm] that a progressive writer creates literature for the progress of society, the time to understand what entails ‘progress’ has long past us. Taking into account the present condition of Indian society, a progressive writer should imbibe the following viewpoints.

(1)    A progressive writer should adopt a scientific approach towards viewing things. Progressive writers should labour hard to eradicate superstitions and blind practises which abound immensely in our society.

(2)    A progressive writer should work for the freedom of women, freedom of speech and expression, and other fundamental democratic rights.

(3)    A progressive writer should aspire for the industrialisation of India; only an industrialised social order can sustain India financially and economically.

(4)    A progressive write should oppose popular established mindset and institutions that uphold and emphasise such a mindset. We can march ahead only if we propagate fraternity and unity in society.

(5)    We should have an egalitarian economy without the hierarchies prevalent in the current economic order.

(6)    A progressive writer should strive for a united Kerala. The culture of Kerala will develop only if united.

(7)    Administrative procedures, education and other such matters should be carried out in the mother tongue [regional language].

(8)    A progressive writer should endeavour for world peace. Culture grows and progresses only in a peaceful environment.

(9)    A progressive writer should not isolate himself [sic] from society and continue to create art; he should take an active part in the programmes of cultural organisations around him.

It is only by internalising these viewpoints that a progressive write can remain unflinching and stoic in the creation of literature and art that inspire and support social transformation.

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[1] The author is referring to the International Congress for the Defense of Culture held in Paris in 1935. The date mentioned by the author is not the actual date of the conference which was from 21-25 June 1935.

[2] Dalits

[3] A practice of hierarchical division of society in Vedic period into four varnas (sections) based on their social and economic roles and profession. The Varna system eventually founded itself within the rigid practice of caste system in India.

Final Submission

An Introduction to the translation-

I have chosen a portion of Loknātya-Nātaka-Katha as part of my translation workshop exercise, to elaborate how translation can be used as a critical tool for revealing the problems of a documentation of folk theatres, the theoretical biases which constrict the scope of the research in performing arts and how it manifests in the contradictions prevalent in the language, employed to document the performances. A summary of the author’s oeuvre would be of importance in this regard. Sisir Majumdar trained in the Discipline of Bengali Literature (uptil his PhD.). In 1966, while teaching at University College, Raigānj, North Bengal, he first witnesses Folk Theatre. From 1972 onwards, he claims he is being part of folk theatres across North Bengal. In 1984, he is awarded the PhD degree for his work on Folk Theatre, from Calcutta University. He claims he is possibly the first one to be awarded a Phd for researching this area. Between 1984 and 1985, he edits and publishes a little magazine called Lok Nātya. In 1986, he publishes his PhD dissertation on the folk theatres of North Bengal, with assistance from Ashok Motayed. In 1989, Kalyani University establishes a department of Folk Culture, and he is invited to teach Folk Theatre. Later in Rabindrabharati University, a special course is structured on Folk Culture or Lok Sanskriti, where Sisir Majumdar teaches the folk theatre component. An abridged version of the PhD dissertation is published by Paschim Banga Nātya Academy, on 9^th December 2005.

This text is an abridged version of his larger anthology.

As is partially evident from the aforementioned brief bio-note, Sisir Majumdar had theorised and documented a performance spectrum, which had not been extensively studied prior to his intervention. Sisir Majumdar has in front of him certain folklorists to emulate like Milton Singer, Balwant Gargi and Sukumar Sen and the critical categories which they delineate in their works. As we proceed into the book, beyond the first chapter, we notice that certain key concepts dominate his analysis of folk theatres across North Bengal, like binary depth, motifeme, antithesis, diffusion. As I have translated in the following chapter, Sisir Majumdar consciously separated folk theatre from the folk dramatic texts and yet, his surverys of folk theatres of North Bengal(as anthologized in this book) remains an exercise in folk lore studies largely. Irrespective of the folk form he studies, he will first look at the plot of the performance and from this plot, evolve a social diagram of the community which gives birth to that folk theatre.

Initially, I had undertaken this translation project to know more about the folk theatres of West Bengal from which Alternative Living Theatre, Abdalpur/Madhyamgram derives acting training methodologies. Looking at this text and two recent productions of Alternative Living Theatre, I am forced to conclude that Sisir Majumdar doesn’t analyse any gestures or movement patterns when he claims to study the folk theatres. On the side of Alternative Living Theatre, it’s more apparent that they derive some body training ideas from performance traditions of South Bengal and other parts of India, not the North Bengal forms which Sisir Majumdar studies under the general heading of folk theatres.

On the face of it, because of the English medium, in which Sisir Majumdar has received instruction in folkloristics would have made my task of translating from Bengali to English easier. However, it has not been so because, to capture the peculiarities of the folk community of different parts of North Bengal, Sisir Majumdar invents a set of complex terms for which he doesn’t provide a glossary or footnoting. One such word is Prāk-Naiyāyik which he cursorily explains as meaning tied by belief in a common thing. However, when one traces the roots of the word, one encounters the etymological root of nyāya, and thus opens up the discourse of one of the schools of āstikā Hindu philosophy, crudely summarised as the school of logic. As a translator, I am at a loss as to how Sisir Majumdar coined these words to fit into his contexts, whether they are results of forcing down Anglo-American theoretical paradigms on Bengali contexts.

Sisir Majumdar. Loknātya-Nātaka-Katha. (Kolkata: Mom, date not mentioned)

Section I

Chapter 1

The definition of Folk Theatre

The word “Lok Nātya” is modern but “Nātya" is ancient. However, in any folk community, these words are not prevalent. What we specify as “Lok Nātya” (Folk Theatre), is predominantly known as “Gān” (song) to the folk community. In the language of North Bengal’s Dinājpur, its called “Gāun.” The performers are called “Gāundars”, “Pātyal”. Musical dialogues dominate in these performances, so they are called “Gān” or “Gāun”. Needless to say, the folk culture is primarily composed of the audience.

Sukumar Sen has proposed a meaning of the word, “Nātya”. In his words, “Nat’er kormo” or “The activities of a Nat”[1]. In this light, folk theatre might be considered the activity of folk Nats. But when we think of Nat, we are reminded of a professional class of people. The Nattya title is particularly reminiscent of that.

In North Bengal, there is no one class of professional performer. Those who indulge in performances, they are called by different names-“Angiyā (Rangiyā)“, “Osiyā(Rasiyā) “, “Gāin”. They are primarily peasants and more than half are below the poverty line. From their own experiences, they orally compose[2] the “Gān” or “Gāun” or song-dance performances. All of these people belong to the same socio-cultural-geographical stratum and are strongly tied together by a life philosophy. The producers of their performance are their audiences, who belong to the socio-cultural-geographical spectrum.

Throughout the year, according to auspicious days of the Bengali lunar calendar, the ecological events circumscribe their day to day life, and form the content of their performances. I will take up the issue of content, as I go on.

In these communities of North Bengal, there are some life philosophies which exist predominantly at the level of beliefs. From this philosophy, the community performances which are born, are sometimes labelled as being religious-although the folk culture is hardly aware of this word “Dharmiyā” or religious. For example, in the times of drought, to usher in the rains, the anxious community performs a ceremony, replete with theatrical idioms. Progressive societies will describe these as cult practices, rituals, magic. The community believes that performing these rituals will resolve the drought and bring rain.[3]

But the very occurrence of theatrical idioms in ritual performances doesn’t classify them as “Nātya” or theater. “Bibāha” (marriage) is the name of such a performance laden with ritual acts, such acts which borrow from theatrical idioms but we don’t call it a “Bibāha Nātya” (Theatre of Marriage). On the other hand, in theatre, we imitate a wedding taking place, and this happens, because theatre is widely understood as a mimetic activity.[4]

The dance element in folk theatre can’t be separated from the form of folk theatre. Dance is also a mimetic form. But “nātya” and “nrtya” are not the same, because “nātya” manifests the rasa and nrtya manifests the bhāva.[5] Even though this argument pertains to classical theatre and dances, its pertinent in the context of folk theatre. A majority might argue that the dance element of folk dance is largely quotidian. Which means, it is composed of improvised gestures which are rhythmic and not conveying emotions, distinct from the orthodox vocabulary of a dance. No rasa or bhava is born out of it. But sometimes, this improvised movement does crystallize into a fixed vocabulary of dance, although that can’t be expected to approximate the classical forms. For example, when the folk are knit shoulder to shoulder to the tunes of a song or even without a musical accompaniment, just to the beats of a drum, the “ādivāsi” maidens are dancing shoulder to shoulder, that is the manifestation of their togetherness. “Lok nātya” or “nrtya” is never pre-meditated, its foundational characteristic is spontaneity. That is why its non-unified, unstructured, simple, unmediated. It’s not tied up in formulaic rules.  But classical theatre is rigid, complex, sophisticated and demands mathematical exactness, which is impossible achieve in the life of these folk communities.

In the composition and execution of folk theatres, the individual’s presence goes unacknowledged. There the village society or the folk community envelops and manifests itself beyond all individual tribes or collectives, in all aspects, be it content, performance or spectatorship. Let me give me an example from the context of North Bengal.

In earlier times, in case of Khan(a type of folk theatre), it was brought into being by the indigenous or village populace; however in the pre-division Dinājpur, in the settler colonies, diverse communities, including Muslims comprise the performers, producers and audience of Khan. Again, the Songs of Jang, performed during Muharram is performed by the entire, undivided indigenous and pastoral communities. The audience of such a forum is not just the indigenous, village or Muslim community, but several others who compose the body of the village society. For this reason, folk theatre is not limited in its scope, its egalitarian. Possibly, while noting these features of Folk Theatre, Balwant Gargi had said “Folk Art crosses the borders of class, religion and country. The classical often imposes these barriers because of its esoteric nature.” [6]

Despite being suffused with emotions and theatrical elements, outside the context in which they have evolved, the songs of folk theatres sound stereotyped, monotonous.[7]

One can piece together a definition of folk theatre from these preliminary discussions but it’s not a comprehensive one. Although, a lot of people have tried posing their definitions of folk theatre. Dr. Ashutosh Bhattacharya has written in an essay, “In the village societies, based on the life of the folk community, the theatre form that’s orally composed and orally transmitted, that is called folk theatre.”[8]

Some other researchers have tried to pose defintions of folk theatres. Some have also discussed the common features, evolution and transmission of these art forms. But sadly enough, no one has been able to theorize an adequate definition of folk theatres. Our belief is that folk theatre is so dynamic, diverse and dispersed in it nature that arriving at a definition on the basis of a handful of examples is a futile exercise. The problem is compounded by the fact that the experience of the folk community gets transformed with the material transformation of the conditions of their existence.

There is a difference between the meanings subsumed in the words, Lok Nātya  and Lok Nātak, which a lot of us don’t pay heed to. Lok Nātya is a performance or performative art, Lok Nātak is its dramtatic text, its literary component. Sukumar Sen alerts us to this distinction.

Although its not our objective to posit an absolute definition of folk theatre, or discussing its salient features and evolution, its unavoidable in our present context of discussions. On the basis of my experience, I can say that folk theatre emerges from a spontaneous lived experience of the folk community and could be collectively composed, textualised or orally composed and transmitted. It may or may not have a song and dance component. The duration of the performances can be very short or going on for hours. The plot might have a beginning, middle and end but that’s not compulsory. But it’ll always be non-individualistic and impersonal. There will be some specific motifs and bits of lived experience, which arises out of the life of the community, the regional culture deciding the art form. If somebody from the village composes something individually and orally, it doesn’t get recognised as folk theatre. Even if it incorporates the structural elements of folk theatres and its life philosophy, it doesn’t get labelled as folk theatre unless the community takes part in it, spectates it, approves of it. In reality, the folk community is structured in such a way, that at every level of it, a folk drama comes into existence. In some stages, it is ephemeral or stymied, in others its manifested and consolidated. All these are based on the transformation of the objective conditions of folk existence.

A lot of people think that folk theatre evolves and manifests in the context of the village populace. But truth be told, that is not the case. In the city and on the margins of the city, the urban populace also gives birth to folk theatres (a separate research should be conducted in this area).  Maybe a lot of different communities live there by side by side. At present, a similar arrangement is seen in the villages. If folk theatres are born there, why will there not be a similar process in cities? All the tribes, communities contribute to the body of the “folk”. The communities around or in the city are tied by similar social ties at the substantial level of material, economic and objective conditions and like the village communities, they also have a folk philosophy grounding them. [9]

At present, in the zila of North Dinājpur, on the outskirts of the city of Rāiganj, close to the banks of the Kulik river, there is a place called Bandar. In this Bandar region, people of different communities, river-centric economies have assimilated and are coexisting. Gradually, there languages-cultures-social thought-social practices acquire such a syncretic form, that their culture and community gets recognised as Bandariya. In this Bandar, “Ramrasayan” and “Gambhira” performances take place. That “Gambhira” has a unique Bandariya characteristic. Another noticeable fact is that on the western frontier of Māldah-North Dinājpur zilas, along the banks of the rivers Mahanandā, Kulik and Sudhānā, the folk form of “Bolbāi” is almost extinct. Only some fragmentary memories of it persist.

But what is its reason? Why isn’t “Bolbāi” practised anymore? The reason is as clear as daylight. Post-partition, several foreign cultural practices swept through to give rise to an urban performance tradition, against which “Bolbāi” couldn’t retain its native identity. In contrast, the robust form of “Alkāp” contributes to the new performance idiom of “Pancharasa”. Which elucidates how, with the transformation of objective conditions of the folk community, a certain folk theatre can get transformed and even marginalized and extinct.

But sometimes, when I see that a community or tribe is isolated from urban influences, the folk theatre there evolves and manifests itself comfortably. Although, there are substantial changes which happen temporally. That is because, the objective conditions of their existence are continuously getting altered and transformed. But in those places, a range of folk theatres are observable. For example, Palatiya of Jalpāiguri zila; “Khan”, “Natuā” and “Leto” of North Dinājpur; Leto of Birbhum zilā, all these can be discussed. In these societies, on one hand you have the decadent primitive communitarian tribal culture; on the other hand, on a minor scale, you have a cross between serf and feudal culture and contemporarily, an emergent semi-capitalist culture is noticeable. Just the urban culture, which is largely dominated by semi-capitalist culture, has not been able to affect these folk theatres. If that had happened, khan, palatiya, leto would have been completely extinct.

In folk theatre research, it’s necessary for us to gather anthropological and sociological data about the folk artists, spectators and producers. How a tribe comes in contact with another tribe, in what context the process of assimilation takes pace, how people of different religious faiths become one in the cultural spectrum, these are important questions which need to be asked. These are not appropriated cultures, it’s not separated from the life of the folk community. Researchers of folk cultures suggest that a holistic and cross-cultural framework is necessary for studying any folk form.

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[1] Sukumar Sen, Nat Nātya Nātak (Chaitra 1372) 11.

[2] Of late, they have started writing down their compositions. Initially, the performance is composed orally by a group of people, and this forms the basic plot structure. In Bardhaman, Birbhum, “Neto” or “Leto” dance sequences are prevalent. Sukumar Sen informs us that sequences of “Neto” are all orally composed. Songs are their only performance capital. Ibid 120.

[3] Its notable that in these rituals, the female folk take the lead. On certain occasions, the male members are completely excluded. Towards the beginning of civilization, the right to cultivate crops was with women and alongwith agriculture, an entire cottage industry was owned and controlled by women. Even now, after losing the right to cultivate, in some rituals associated with agriculture, the presiding power of women still goes unchallenged and their immense presence bears a testimony to a different past.

[4] I have expressed this opinion keeping in mind, certain comical and ritual plays. This observation doesn’t apply generally to all folk theatres.

[5] Pabitra Sarkar, “Nātoker byakaron o dhananjayer dashrupak”(The Grammar of Theatre and The Ten Rupaks of Dhananjaya). Nātyamancha Nātyarupa (A Collection of articles on dramaturgy and Bengali theatre). (Kolkata: Dey’s Publishing, 2008) p 3.

[6] Milton Singer: A Great Tradition Modernizes. (I retain the actual footnoting by the author, Sisir Majumdar)

[7] I have hinted towards this earlier, that a specific ecological setting, a geographical terrain which feeds the lifestyle of the populace. The conditions for existence, that is the ecological perspective gives birth to the specific form of folk theatre. People derive pleasure from it, out of feeling of familiarity of contexts. (Indian Theatres/ Adya Rangacharya pg. 110)

[8] Bhattacharya, Ashutosh. “Uttorbanglar grameen lok natya”.(The Village/Folk Theatres of North Bengal).  Chatuskon Special Theatre Edition Issue no. 1, 16^th year.

[9] In the city of Kolkata, the case of Shongs (Clowns) of Jelepara is contextually relevant.